Indian Laws & Updates

Supreme law of India. 395 Articles, 22 Parts, 12 Schedules, 105 Amendments. Establishes parliamentary democracy, fundamental rights (Part III), directive principles (Part IV), federal structure with Centre-State distribution of powers.

Free and compulsory education for children 6–14 years under Article 21A. 25% reservation in private unaided schools for EWS/disadvantaged groups. No capitation fee or screening for admission.

Citizens can request information from public authorities within 30 days. Penalty Rs 250/day (max Rs 25,000) for delay. 2019 amendment changed CIC service conditions controversially.

Prevents atrocities against Scheduled Castes and Tribes. 2015 amendment added 22 new offences including garlanding with footwear, preventing voting. Exclusive Special Courts, anticipatory bail restricted.

Replaces 1995 Act. 21 disability categories (from 7). 5% reservation in government jobs, 5% in higher education. Mandatory accessibility norms. Chief Commissioner of Persons with Disabilities.

2018: bribe-giving criminalised (previously only taking was offence). Prior sanction required for prosecution of public servants. Commercial organisation liability. 2-year trial timeline.

Establishes Lokpal at Centre and Lokayuktas at state level to inquire into corruption allegations against public servants including PM (with restrictions), ministers, MPs, Group A officers.

Protects persons disclosing corruption, wilful misuse of power, and criminal offences by public servants. Competent Authority receives disclosures. Complainant identity protected. Victimisation prohibited.

Replaces 163-year-old IPC with 358 sections. Terrorism defined as offence, organised crime chapter, community service as punishment, sedition renamed to acts endangering sovereignty.

Replaces CrPC with 531 sections. Mandatory audio-video recording of search/seizure, trial in absentia, Zero FIR, mandatory e-FIR, 90-day police custody for grave offences.

Replaces Indian Evidence Act. Electronic/digital records as primary evidence. Joint trial provisions expanded. 170 sections replacing 167.

Historic criminal code repealed 1 July 2024. Contained 511 sections covering all major criminal offences for 163 years. Replaced by BNS 2023.

Criminal procedure code repealed 1 July 2024, replaced by BNSS 2023.

Evidentiary code repealed 1 July 2024, replaced by BSA 2023.

2019 amendment introduced death penalty for aggravated penetrative sexual assault on children below 12. Child-friendly courts, special prosecutors, mandatory reporting.

Governs narcotics offences. Reverse burden of proof on accused. Strict Section 37 bail. Death penalty for repeat large-quantity trafficking. Controlled substances list.

2019 amendment: designation of individuals as terrorists. NIA can attach property without state government permission. 180-day bail restriction. Wider terrorism definition.

2021 amendment: DMs can grant adoption orders. Juveniles 16–18 tried as adults for heinous offences after JJB assessment. Child Welfare Committees strengthened.

2019: max 1 firearm per person (was 3). Life imprisonment for prohibited arms. Online licence application. Stronger provisions on weapons of mass destruction.

Regulates manufacture, possession, use, sale, import of explosives. PESO administers licensing. Ammonium nitrate, gunpowder, detonators all covered.

Maharashtra state law to combat organised crime. Special courts, interception of communications, stringent bail. Applicable in Delhi NCT too under special notification.

Section 143 BNS defines trafficking comprehensively. Aggravated forms attract life imprisonment. Child trafficking, trafficking for forced labour, organ harvesting covered.

Primary civil procedure law. 158 Sections, 51 Orders. Jurisdiction, pleadings, discovery, interim orders, execution, appeals. Commercial Courts Act (2015) creates fast-track mechanism.

137 articles prescribing time limits. General suit limitation: 3 years. Fraud/mistake: 3 years from discovery. SC suo motu extended limitation during COVID (In Re: Cognizance, 2020).

2018: specific performance made rule (not exception) especially for infrastructure contracts. 12-month trial limit. Substituted performance concept. Special courts for infrastructure.

Commercial Courts at district/HC level for specified-value disputes (Rs 3 lakh+). Pre-institution mediation mandatory. Strict timelines. Summary judgment. Costs imposed liberally.

India's first standalone mediation law. Pre-litigation mediation mandatory for commercial disputes. Settlement = court decree. Mediation Council of India. Online mediation recognised. 60-day timeline.

NALSA provides free legal aid to marginalised groups. Lok Adalats give final non-appealable awards. Permanent Lok Adalats for public utility services. Pre-litigation settlement.

Foundational contract law. Offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity, free consent. Void/voidable contracts. Quasi-contracts. Breach remedies (Section 73–74). Frustration (Section 56).

Sale of goods contracts. Conditions and warranties. Caveat emptor. Nemo dat rule for title transfer. Risk and property passing rules. Buyer and seller remedies.

Governs cheques, promissory notes, bills of exchange. Section 138 cheque dishonour: criminal liability. 2018 amendment: interim compensation 20%, trial in 6 months.

470 sections governing companies. CSR 2% mandatory, independent directors, NCLT/NCLAT, NFRA, class action suits, fast-track mergers. Continuous amendments to decriminalise offences.

330-day insolvency timeline. Rs 1 crore default threshold. Home buyers = financial creditors. Pre-packaged insolvency for MSMEs. Personal guarantors covered. 700+ companies resolved.

Securities market regulator. Powers: investigation, prosecution, disgorgement, recovery. 2023: enhanced powers, Settlement Scheme, Consent Orders. T+1 settlement implemented.

Civil law governing forex. Replaced criminal FERA. FDI, FPI, current account transactions. Compoundable offences. Enforcement Directorate for FEMA violations.

2023: deal value threshold Rs 2,000 crore, 150-day CCI timeline, settlement/commitment mechanism, gun-jumping penalties enhanced, hub-and-spoke agreements covered.

2020: revised Micro (≤Rs 1cr investment, ≤Rs 5cr turnover), Small (≤Rs 10cr, ≤Rs 50cr), Medium (≤Rs 50cr, ≤Rs 250cr). Udyam registration. 45-day payment rule.

2021: Small LLP category, 12 offences decriminalised, company-to-LLP conversion. Separate legal entity. No limit on partners. Flexible management structure.

Governs general partnerships. No separate legal entity. Partners jointly and severally liable. Max 50 partners. Registration optional but recommended. Dissolution and winding up.

NSDL and CDSL as depositories. Dematerialisation of securities. Beneficial owner concept. Electronic holding of shares, bonds, debentures. Transfer without stamp duty.

Banks enforce security interests without courts for NPAs > Rs 1 lakh. 60-day notice. ARC framework for bad loan purchase. 2016: reduced auction timeline, co-operative banks included.

Governs marriage/divorce for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs. Section 13 divorce grounds, Section 13B mutual consent. Section 25 alimony. Irretrievable breakdown recognised by SC.

2005: daughters = coparceners in ancestral property. Retrospective effect confirmed (Vineeta Sharma, SC 2020). Intestate succession. Class I heirs priority.

Civil remedy for domestic violence. Protection orders, residence orders, monetary relief, custody orders. Live-in partners covered. Shared household rights. Protection Officers appointed.

Girls < 18 and boys < 21 cannot marry. Child marriages voidable at minor's option. Child Marriage Prohibition Officers. Proposed amendment to raise girls' age to 21 (pending).

Civil marriage for all persons regardless of religion/caste. 30-day notice period (SC challenge pending). Secular succession rules apply. Inter-religious marriages.

Only Hindus can adopt under this Act. Child, son/daughter placement rules. Wife, children, aged parents entitled to maintenance. Fair and reasonable maintenance standard.

Criminalises instant triple talaq (talaq-e-biddat). Up to 3 years imprisonment + fine. Marriage remains valid after pronouncement. Wife entitled to allowance and custody.

District magistrates now pass adoption orders (not courts). Streamlined inter-country adoption. Online CARINGS portal. NRI adoption process revised.

Maintenance rights of divorced Muslim women. Reasonable provision during iddat period. SC landmark (Shah Bano 1985) led to this legislation. Section 125 CrPC also available (Daniel Latifi, SC 2001).

Primary cyber law. 2008: Section 69 interception, Section 79 intermediary safe harbour. Section 66A struck down (Shreya Singhal, SC 2015). Cyber appellate tribunal. CERT-In.

India's first comprehensive data privacy law. Consent-based processing. Data Protection Board. Penalties up to Rs 250 crore. Significant Data Fiduciary designation. Rules awaited.

Grievance Officer, Chief Compliance Officer for major social media (5mn+ users). 2022: Grievance Appellate Committee. 2023: Fact Check Unit (stayed by Bombay HC).

6-hour incident reporting mandatory. 180-day log retention. VPN providers retain user data 5 years. Crypto exchanges covered. NTP clock synchronisation mandatory.

Replaces Indian Telegraph Act 1885 & Wireless Telegraphy Act 1933. OTT communication may be regulated. Biometric SIM verification. Spectrum as natural resource. Right of way.

Section 66 – Hacking, 66B – Receiving stolen computer resource, 66C – Identity theft, 66D – Cheating by impersonation, 66E – Privacy violation, 66F – Cyber terrorism.

CGST, IGST, UGST, SGST Acts. Replaced 17 central/state taxes. 4-tier rates (5%, 12%, 18%, 28%). GST Council. ITC mechanism. E-way bill. E-invoicing (phased rollout).

Governs income tax for all persons. New tax regime (115BAC) default from AY 2024-25. GAAR provisions. Faceless assessment. 30% tax + 1% TDS on virtual digital assets.

Import/export duty, valuation, smuggling offences. CBIC administration. CESTAT for appeals. Advance ruling available. IGCR (Import of Goods at Concessional Rate) Rules.

Criminalises money laundering. ED attaches proceeds of crime. Twin test for bail (Section 45). CAs, CSs, CWAs, VASPs as reporting entities. Attachment and confiscation.

Prohibits benami transactions. Adjudicating Authority and Appellate Tribunal. 7 years rigorous imprisonment + fine 25% of fair market value. Informer reward.

Eliminates physical interface between taxpayer and IT officer. Random computer-based assignment. National Faceless Assessment Centre. No physical scrutiny or personal appearance.

Compensates states for revenue loss due to GST implementation for 5 years (till June 2022). Cess on sin goods (tobacco, luxury cars, aerated drinks). Extended due to COVID.

Targets undisclosed foreign income and assets. 30% tax + 90% penalty + imprisonment. One-time compliance window provided. ED and IT Department jointly enforce.

Consolidates Payment of Wages Act, Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Bonus Act, Equal Remuneration Act. Universal minimum wage. Floor wage. Annual bonus 8.33%–20%.

Consolidates Trade Unions Act, Industrial Employment Act, Industrial Disputes Act. 300-worker retrenchment threshold. Fixed-term employment recognised. Reskilling fund.

Consolidates EPF, ESI, Gratuity, Maternity Benefit and 9 others. Gig & platform workers covered. ESIC & EPFO extended scope. National Social Security Board.

Consolidates 13 safety laws. 8-hour workday. Annual leave with wages. Inter-state migrant workers protected. Construction workers, mines, factories all covered.

ICC mandatory for 10+ employee organisations. LCC for unorganised sector. 60-day inquiry. Annual report to district officer. Home-based workers, domestic workers covered.

12% employee + 12% employer PF contribution. EPS (pension) and EDLI (life insurance). Applicable: 20+ employees, salary ≤ Rs 15,000. UAN-based portability. EPFO manages funds.

Medical, disability, maternity, dependent benefits for employees earning ≤ Rs 21,000/month (Rs 25,000 disabled). 10+ employees. ESIC hospital network of 1,500+ facilities.

2017: 26 weeks paid leave for first 2 children. 12 weeks for 3rd child. Crèche mandatory (50+ employees). Work from home option. Adoption/surrogacy leave 12 weeks.

2018: tax-free ceiling doubled to Rs 20 lakh. 5 years continuous service. Formula: 15 days × last drawn salary × years of service. Government servants covered separately.

2015: eligibility raised to Rs 21,000/month. Calculation ceiling Rs 7,000/month. Minimum bonus 8.33%, maximum 20%. Allocable and available surplus concepts.

Regulates contract labour. Licence for contractors (20+ contract workers). Registration for principal employers (20+ contract workers). Welfare, health provisions. Abolition power.

Safety, health, welfare of construction workers. 1% cess on construction project cost. BOCW Welfare Boards at state level. Registration of workers for welfare benefits.

Protects migrant workers from other states. Registration of contractors, licence required. Displacement allowance, journey allowance, suitable accommodation. Superseded partly by OSH Code.

Equal pay for equal work for men and women. No discrimination in recruitment. Superseded by Code on Wages when implemented. Advisory committees for monitoring.

Project registration mandatory. 70% funds in separate escrow account. Carpet area as pricing basis. 5-year structural defect liability. RERA Authority and Appellate Tribunal.

Sale, mortgage, lease, exchange, gift of immovable property. Section 53A doctrine of part performance. Actionable claims. Rule against perpetuities. Notice provisions.

Compulsory registration of sale deeds, gift deeds, mortgages, leases > 1 year. Sub-Registrar offices. Certified copies as evidence. Online registration in many states.

Mandatory SIA, 70-80% consent, R&R package, 2x rural / 1x urban market value compensation. Replaces 1894 Act. Food security safeguard. Urgency clause restricted.

Stamp duty on instruments. Securities stamped centrally. Rates vary by state (Entry 63, List II). Unstamped documents inadmissible in evidence. E-stamping in most states.

Easements of way, light, air, water. Customary easements. Profits à prendre. License vs easement distinction. Acquisition by grant, prescription. Extinction of easements.

Various states have Apartment Acts (Maharashtra Apartment Ownership Act, MOFA 1963). Flat ownership, common areas, co-operative society management. Superseded partly by RERA.

State-level rent control laws. Delhi Rent Control Act 1958, Maharashtra Rent Control Act 1999. Model Tenancy Act 2021 by Centre as guidance for states. Landlord-tenant balance.

Umbrella environmental law post-Bhopal gas tragedy. Central government powers to set emission/effluent standards, issue directions, restrict industrial activity. EIA notification basis.

Renamed from FCA 1980. Border area exemptions (100km from LAC/LOC). Strategic/linear projects fast-tracked. Private plantation on non-forest land incentivised.

2022: 4 schedules (from 6), CITES alignment, invasive alien species regulation, enhanced penalties, surrender of captive animals. Project Tiger, Project Elephant under this Act.

PCBs regulate air pollution from industries. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Consent to Operate required. CPCB sets national standards, SPCB implements.

Prevents water pollution via discharge standards. PCBs regulate effluents. CPCB and SPCBs. Consent to Establish and Operate for industries. River boards concept.

NGT for environmental disputes. Original and appellate jurisdiction. 6-month disposal target. Compensation for environmental damage. Expert technical members alongside judicial.

EPR framework for electronics producers. Collection target percentages. Tradeable EPR certificates. Refurbished products recognised. Urban mining provisions. CPCB oversight.

Banned 19 single-use plastic categories. Phase-wise thickness ban (75 microns → 120 microns). EPR for packaging. Import ban on banned items. CPCB enforcement.

National Biodiversity Authority. Access and benefit sharing for biological resources. 2023 amendment: exemptions for AYUSH and codified traditional knowledge. Penalties enhanced.

Regulates development in coastal areas. CRZ I, II, III, IV zones. HTL/LTL based demarcation. Tourism and fishing village relaxations. Mangrove protection strengthened.

TRIPS-compliant since 2005. Section 3(d) anti-evergreening. Compulsory licensing (Section 84). 20-year term. Pre/post-grant opposition. Patent Office at Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata.

10-year registration (renewable indefinitely). Well-known mark protection. Sound and smell marks registrable. IPAB abolished (2021) – High Court has jurisdiction. Madrid Protocol access.

2012: author royalty rights, DRM provisions, internet broadcasting statutory licence, moral rights. Life + 60 years term. Software protected as literary work. Fair dealing provisions.

Darjeeling tea, Basmati rice, Alphonso mango, Kanjeevaram silk, Madhubani paintings – 500+ GIs registered. 10-year registration (renewable). Authorised users can sue infringers.

Novel and original industrial designs protected. 10-year registration (extendable by 5 years). Non-obviousness requirement. Piracy penalties. Cancellation proceedings at Design Office.

Layout designs of semiconductor ICs protected for 10 years. Registration with SICLD Registry. Civil and criminal remedies. Originality requirement.

Constitutes RBI. 2016: MPC framework, inflation targeting (2–6% CPI). Currency issuance, banking regulation, external reserves management, payment systems oversight.

2020: cooperative banks under RBI regulation. Board supersession powers. Amalgamation scheme. PMC Bank, Yes Bank precedents. Licensing of banking companies.

Regulates UPI, IMPS, NEFT, RTGS. RBI authorises PSOs. Netting and settlement finality. Oversight of payment aggregators, prepaid instruments, account aggregators.

NABARD: apex body for agricultural credit, rural infrastructure. Refinance to RRBs, cooperative banks. Priority sector lending oversight. RIDF management.

Debt Recovery Tribunals for claims > Rs 20 lakh. DRT and DRAT appeals. Recovery Officers execute recovery certificates. Faster than civil courts.

2021: Rs 5 lakh deposit insurance per depositor per bank. 90-day claim settlement if bank placed under directions. Covers savings, FD, RD, current accounts.

SIDBI as apex financial institution for MSMEs. Refinance to banks for MSME loans. Credit guarantee through CGTMSE. Venture capital for startups.

Replaces 1986 Act. E-commerce transactions covered. CCPA for class action. Product liability (strict liability). Mediation ADR. Revised pecuniary jurisdiction for DRCs.

FSSAI as apex food regulator. Food standards, labelling, licensing for all food businesses. FSAT for appeals. Mandatory FSSAI licence. Organic food, AYUSH foods regulations.

Accurate weights/measures mandatory. MRP on all packaged commodities. Manufacturer name and address required. Replaced 1976 Act. Legal Metrology (Packaged Commodities) Rules 2011.

BIS as national standards body. Compulsory BIS certification for helmets, toys, pressure cookers. Gold hallmarking mandatory since June 2021. Conformity assessment.

Prohibits misleading advertisements claiming to cure 54 diseases (cancer, epilepsy, etc.). MTP and contraception ads restricted. Proposed amendment pending to cover OTT and digital platforms.

Drunk driving Rs 10,000. No-helmet Rs 1,000. Juvenile offence → guardian liable, vehicle seized. Good Samaritan immunity. Hit-and-run Rs 2 lakh compensation. Automated vehicle fitness.

MACTs adjudicate accident compensation. Pranay Sethi (SC 2017): structured formula with multiplier. Notional income for non-earning victims Rs 15,000/month. Third-party insurance compulsory.

Technical standards for vehicles. Emission norms (BS6 since 2020). Axle load limits. Licensing requirements. Tinted glass rules. Electronic stability control.

Fitness test for vehicles > 20 years (private) / > 15 years (commercial). RVSFs (Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities). Scrappage certificate → discount on new vehicle purchase.

Regulates import, manufacture, distribution of drugs/cosmetics. Schedule H/H1/X drugs require prescription. CDSCO central authority. GMP compliance. New Drugs & CT Rules 2019.

Attempted suicide decriminalised. Right to mental healthcare. Advance directives. Central & State Mental Health Authorities. Mental health review boards. Community-based treatment.

2021: MTP up to 24 weeks for rape survivors, disabled women, fetal anomalies. Beyond 24 weeks: Medical Board. Unmarried women included. Identity confidentiality strengthened.

Replaces MCI. 4 autonomous boards (UGMEB, PGMEB, MESAB, EAMB). NEXT exit exam proposed. Community health provider concept. AYUSH bridge course provision (controversial).

2020 (COVID context): attacks on healthcare workers criminalised, 7-year imprisonment + fine, property damage compensation, central government empowered to act.

Deceased donor transplant system. Brain death definition. Swap transplants allowed. NOTTO national registry. Organ trafficking: 10-year imprisonment. THOA 2011 added tissues.

Mandatory registration of all clinical establishments. Minimum standards. National Council for Clinical Establishments. Provisional and permanent registration. Applies to states that have adopted it.

Rs 5 lakh health insurance per family/year. 55 crore+ beneficiaries. 1,700+ health packages. Cashless treatment at 24,000+ empanelled hospitals. World's largest government health scheme.

Senior Citizens (60+) Welfare Act 2007. Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act 2007. Maintenance tribunal. Caretaker responsibility. Rs 10,000/month minimum maintenance.

2020: cereals, pulses, oilseeds, edible oils removed from ECA (except extraordinary circumstances). Stock limits relaxed. Price trigger mechanism. Export controls limited.

Farmers' Produce Trade and Commerce Act, Farmers Agreement on Price Assurance Act, ECA Amendment – all three repealed in November 2021 after year-long farmer protests at Delhi borders.

Quality control for seeds sold in India. Central Seed Committee and State Seed Testing Laboratories. Minimum germination standards. Truthful labelling. Proposed Seeds Bill pending.

PPV&FRA. Farmers can save, sow, re-sow, exchange, share traditional seeds. Breeders' rights 15–18 years. Benefit sharing from use of genetic resources. National Gene Fund.

Regulates manufacture, sale, use of pesticides. Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee. Registration required for every pesticide. Banned and restricted pesticides list.

Regulates manufacture, import, distribution of fertilisers. Quality standards. Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) for P&K fertilisers. DBT for urea subsidy at neem-coated rates.

Crop insurance: 2% premium kharif, 1.5% rabi, 5% horticulture. Technology-based loss assessment (remote sensing, drones). Smart sampling. 5.5 crore+ farmer applications per season.

State-level mandi regulation. Licence for traders, market fees, auction mechanism. Model APMC Act 2003 by Centre. Many states amended after 2020. Electronic trading on e-NAM platform.

KCC (Kisan Credit Card) for crop loans at 4% interest. Priority sector lending norms: 18% to agriculture. RIDF for rural infrastructure. FPO fund for Farmer Producer Organisations.

Governs Indian Army discipline and military justice. Court martial (GCM, DCM, SCM). Military tribunals. Powers of commanding officers. Army Act applies only to persons subject to military law.

Indian Navy discipline, courts, courts of inquiry. Naval law applicable to officers and enrolled persons. Summary trials for minor offences. Naval justice system.

Air Force courts, discipline, offences. Court martial jurisdiction. Personnel from flight crews to ground staff. ISO Act 2023 now enables tri-service command.

Special powers in disturbed areas (J&K, Manipur, parts of NE). Prior sanction to prosecute armed forces. Partially removed from Nagaland (2023). UN calls for repeal.

Empowers Commanders-in-Chief of joint bodies (including CDS) to exercise disciplinary and administrative powers over tri-service personnel. Enables theaterisation.

Prohibits spying, disclosure of state secrets, communication with foreign agents. Section 5 covers wrongful communication. Used against journalists controversially. RTI takes precedence for official information.

Replaced DPP 2016. iDEX, DRDO commercialisation. Make in India defence categories (Make I, II, III). FDI in defence raised to 74% automatic / 100% government route.

Replaces Press and Registration of Books Act 1867. Online registration. Title allotment online. Decriminalisation of offences. Press Registrar General. Digital publications included.

New age certifications: UA 7+, UA 13+, UA 16+. Anti-piracy: 3-year imprisonment. 10-year certificate revision removed. OTT certificates recognised as equivalent.

Regulates cable TV. Programme and advertisement codes. Mandatory DD channels. Digital Addressable System. TRAI sets tariff. Proposed Broadcasting Services Bill will replace this.

Establishes Prasar Bharati as autonomous public broadcaster. Doordarshan (TV) and All India Radio (radio). 36 DD channels, 479 AIR stations. Prasar Bharati Board.

Draft bill: OTT platforms, digital news under unified regulation. Content Evaluation Committees. Broadcast Advisory Council. Replaces Cable TV Act, extends to streaming.

TRAI: independent telecom regulator. Recommendations on spectrum, licensing. TDSAT for dispute resolution. Network neutrality regulations. OTT policy recommendations.

UNCITRAL Model Law based. 2015: 12-month timeline, costs regime. 2019: AIIAC established. 2021: unconditional stay for challenged awards restored. Emergency arbitrator.

Foreign arbitral awards enforceable in India under Part II of A&C Act 1996. 60+ notified countries. Section 44–52 govern enforcement. Narrow grounds for refusal.

First standalone mediation law. Pre-litigation mediation mandatory for commercial disputes. Settlement = court decree. Mediation Council of India. Online mediation. 60-day period.

Sections 61–81 govern conciliation. Conciliator appointed, no adjudication. Settlement agreement has effect of arbitral award. Flexible, party-driven process. Tata Finance case landmark.

CERC and SERCs. Open access to grid. RPO (Renewable Purchase Obligation). Delicensing of generation. Distribution sub-licensees proposed in 2022 Bill. Appellate Tribunal for Electricity (APTEL).

Import, transport, storage of petroleum products regulated. Class A (< 23°C), Class B (23–65°C), Class C (65–93°C). PESO licensing. Hazardous area classification.

Central government regulation of oil and gas E&P. Petroleum licences (PEL) and mining leases. Applicable to all oil/gas operations. HELP/OAL/DSF discovered field bid rounds.

Central government monopoly on nuclear energy. DAE for development. AERB for safety. Radiation Safety Rules. No private sector in nuclear power generation.

2022: carbon credit trading scheme, Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) mandatory, non-fossil fuel obligation for large consumers. BEE administers. Star labelling mandatory.

5 MMT green hydrogen target by 2030. Rs 19,744 crore outlay. SIGHT scheme incentivises electrolyser manufacturing and green hydrogen production. Export incentives.

500 GW non-fossil fuel target by 2030. 300 GW solar, 60 GW offshore wind. PLI for solar modules. PM-KUSUM for agri-solar. RPO trajectory mandated for states.

50-year leases, e-auction of blocks, DMF (District Mineral Foundation), NMET. 2021: captive mine flexibility. 2023: critical minerals exploration by government agencies.

Safety, health, welfare of mine workers. DGMS. Rescue stations, first aid mandatory. Max 48 hours/week. Employment of women in mines. Under OSH Code for future consolidation.

E-auction of coal blocks post-SC cancellation of 218 allotments. Commercial coal mining opened to private sector (2020). Revenue share model. CIL restructuring planned.

Regulates mineral exploration/exploitation in offshore areas beyond territorial waters (EEZ, continental shelf). Composite licence. Applicable to non-petroleum seabed minerals.

30 critical minerals listed (lithium, cobalt, nickel, rare earths, etc.). MMDR amendment enables government to explore these exclusively. KABIL for overseas mineral acquisition. PSU priority.

2015: FDI raised to 49%. 2021: FDI raised to 74% automatic. Composite licence proposed. IRDAI as regulator. Minimum capital Rs 100 crore for life, general insurers.

IRDAI as insurance sector regulator. Licensing of insurers and intermediaries. Policyholder protection. IGMS (Integrated Grievance Management System). Bima Sugam proposed.

2021: enabled LIC IPO (India's largest – Rs 21,000 crore). Government retains 96%+ stake. Sovereign guarantee modified. FDI now allowed. LIC serves 29 crore+ policyholders.

2021: Rs 5 lakh deposit insurance per depositor per bank. 90-day claim settlement when bank placed under restrictions. Triggered by PMC Bank crisis. Premium paid by banks.

Compulsory under Motor Vehicles Act. Unlimited liability for death/injury. Long-term TP policies (3 years for 2-wheelers, 5 years for new cars). IRDAI sets premium annually.

UGC coordinates/maintains higher education standards. Grants to universities. University recognition. Anti-ragging regulations. Proposed to be replaced by HECI under NEP 2020.

5+3+3+4 school structure. Mother tongue medium till Grade 5. Academic Bank of Credits. Multiple entry/exit in HE. 6% GDP target. HECI to replace UGC/AICTE/NCI.

AICTE regulates engineering, MBA, MCA, pharmacy, architecture colleges. Approval for new institutions. Faculty-student ratio norms. NBA accreditation. Under proposed HECI merger.

Regulates teacher education. B.Ed, M.Ed, 4-year integrated B.Ed (NEP). Recognition and inspection. TET (Teacher Eligibility Test) mandated by NCTE norms.

Foreign universities can set up full campuses in India (initially GIFT City). UGC approval. Degree equivalence to Indian degrees. 100% FDI. Southampton, Deakin among applicants.

NAAC accredits universities and colleges (A++, A+, A, B++, B+, B, C, D). NBA accredits technical programmes. Mandatory for autonomous college status and UGC grants. Online assessment being implemented.

Mandatory Anti-Ragging Committees. Affidavit from students and parents. HELPLINE 1800-180-5522. FIR mandatory for violent ragging. Institute punished for inaction.

Governs entry, presence, departure of foreigners. Reverse burden of proof. Foreigners Tribunals for citizenship disputes. Detection, detention, deportation framework.

Passport issuance, revocation. Grounds for refusal (national security, criminal cases). Police verification. Tatkal. e-Passport with RFID chip being rolled out (2023).

Fast-track citizenship for persecuted Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, Christian minorities from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan who entered India before 31 December 2014. Rules notified 2024.

Acquisition/loss of citizenship. By birth, descent, registration, naturalisation. OCI card (2005). No dual citizenship. Naturalisation: 11 years. Citizenship renunciation and termination.

2020: mandatory SBI New Delhi main branch, sub-granting prohibited, admin expenses capped at 20%. Annual return mandatory. 6,000+ NGO licences cancelled since 2015.

Consolidated FDI Policy updated annually. Automatic route (most sectors) vs Government route (defence, media, telecom). Prohibited sectors: gambling, betting, lottery, tobacco manufacture.

e-Visa for 170+ countries (Tourist, Business, Medical, Conference). Restricted Areas Permit (RAP) and Protected Areas Permit (PAP) for sensitive border regions. Long-term e-Visa 5 years.